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Englisc
Overview =Setting= Englisc is a language based on Old Englisc, carried forward to today. There is a bit of German in it, and some modern English, but it maintains its core language, unlike our language. This language is basically Old English as if it evolved like Modern German. =Basic Grammar= Here is a basic grammar of Englisc: Alphabet *Capital: A, Æ, B, C, D, Ð, E, F, G, Ȝ, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, Œ, P, Q, R, S, T, Þ, U, V, W, X, Y, Z *Lowercase: a, æ, b, c, d, ð, e, f, g, ȝ, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, œ, p, q, r, s, t, þ, u, v, w, x, y, z *Runic: ᚪ, ᚫ, ᛒ, ᚳ, ᛞ, ᚧ, ᛖ, ᚠ, ᚸ, ᚷ, ᚻ, ᛁ, ᛄ, ᛣ, ᛚ, ᛗ, ᚾ, ᚩ, ᛟ, ᛈ, ᛢ, ᚱ, ᛋ, ᛏ, ᚦ, ᚢ, ᚡ, ᚹ, ᛉ, ᚣ, ᛎ; additionally: ᛥ (st), ᛝ (ng), ᛡ (ia, io), ᛠ (ea), ᛤ (kk) The alphabet can also be written with runic characters, and when done in this form, can be written backwards, forwards, and vertically up or down, depending on the need of the writer. The Runic letters are arranged alphabetically in their own arrangement, different from Latin form. The Z rune is simply an upside-down T, V is simply a dotted-F rune. The rune ᛢ stands for QU and KW in any word. Runic alphabetical order: f u þ a r c; ȝ w h n i j; eo p x s t b; e m l ng œ d; a æ y ea ia k; kk kw st ð v z; Pronunciation See: Pronunciation Examples The letters b, d, g, k, l, m, n, p, t, v, w, x sound like modern English. The Z sounds like 'ts' as in cats in any unstressed syllable, and dz in a stressed syllable. The letter C is always like ch in church. The letter yogh Ȝ'' is a ''y-sound like yes in all positions. In foreign loanwords, the letter J'' indicates the same sound. The letters ''Þ and Ð'' sound like ''th''ink and ''th''at, respectively. ''H at the beginning of a word is like h''ard; at the end of a word (after a/o/u) like Scottish lo''ch and after front vowels (æ/e/i/œ/y) like German ich. The letter Q'' is always in the combination ''qu and is only used in foreign words; the native version is spelled as kw. The letter S'' is pronounced like ''s''ing in all cases except between vowels, when it sounds like ''z''ulu. The letter ''w is always like w''ire, except in the combination ''wl or wr when it can sound like v''ictor. *A *Æ *E *I - b''i''t/S''ee *O - f''o''n/B''oo''t *Œ - ö *U - food/... *Y - ü'' *EI - b''uy *IE - f''ee'' *EA - m''ay'' - this is simply a long æ''. In words ending in 2 consonants, this digraph is used to indicate a long vowel. *IO - like ''yo A, Æ, B, C, D, Ð, E, F, G, Ȝ, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, Œ, P, Q, R, S, T, Þ, U, V, W, X, Y, Z } | | | | colspan="2" | | | |- ! near-close | | | | | colspan="2" | | | |- ! close-mid | | | | | colspan="2" | | | |- ! mid | colspan="4" | | | | colspan="2" | |- ! open-mid | | | | | colspan="2" | | | |- ! near-open | colspan="4" | | | | colspan="2" | |- ! open | colspan="4" | | | | colspan="2" | |} Notes: * * The schwa occurs only in unstressed syllables, for instance in b'''e'sett'e'''n 'occupy'. It is often considered a complementary allophone together with which cannot occur in unstressed syllables. If a sonorant follows in the syllable coda, the schwa often disappears so that the sonorant becomes syllabic, for instance Kycc'en'' 'kitchen', Es'el'' 'donkey'. Before /r/, this is realized as in some varieties, for instance bett'er'' 'better'. * The vowel written either as æ or ea in some cases is pronounced as the long variant of the short /æ/ Notes: * The letter H can have the pronunciation /h/ at the beginning of a syllable, and /ç/ after front vowels, and /x/ after back vowels. * The sequences /hw hl hn hr/ are realized as l̥ n̥ r̥ Nouns See also: Nouns Nouns have three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), two numbers (single, plural), and four cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative), which are marked with case endings and the use of a definite article. Masculine Masculine nouns are nouns which use the article '''þe and can also describe male beings (Doktor, Baker, Maker, etc.), or words ending in -had. The gender is arbitrary on things, so the gender does need to be memorized. *As an example, the word Stan, stone in the singular: Stan, Stanes, Stan, Stan; plural: Stane, Stane, Stanen, Stane Neuter Neuter nouns are nouns which use the article þat and can also describe things and children (Cild, Barn, etc.), or words ending in -in, -el, -incel. The gender is arbitrary on things, so the gender does need to be memorized. *As an example, the word Barn, child, baby in the singular: Barn, Barnes, Barn, Barn; plural: Barne, Barne, Barnen, Barne Feminine Feminine nouns are nouns which use the article þie and can also describe female beings (Doktorin, Bakestre, Makestre, etc.), or words ending in -ung. The gender is arbitrary on things, so the gender does need to be memorized. *As an example, the word Run, secret in the singular: Run; plural: Rune, Rune, Rune, Rune. *Feminine nouns that end in an ''-e'' in the singular will have en plurals. Pronouns Pronouns operate like any other language, replacing the nouns already mentioned and indicating the speaker, and one to whom you speak. Personal Pronouns First person These are the pronouns including the speaker, that is, I, we two, and we. The following table indicates modern English forms of these pronouns: And now in Niw Englisc: Second Person The second person is the person to whom you are speaking. It is thou (you), ye two, and ye. Third Person The third person is whomever you're talking about; it is the person 'over there.' Indefinite Pronouns These pronouns indicate someone unknown or unnamed to the speaker or person spoken to. The prefix a-'' adds the meaning ''any, æȝ-'' means ''each *anyone, anything: ahwa, ahwat *each/everyone, each/everything (individually): æȝhwa, æȝhwat *each/every one, each/every thing (as a group, together): gehwa, gehwat *no one, nothing: nehwa, nehwat *someone, something: nathwa, nathwat Indefinite Pronouns with Adjective Endings These words function like pronouns, but have adjective endings *both, either, each: gehwæðer *each, every, any: gehwilc *someone, something: ahwæðer Interrogative Pronouns These pronouns are question words, asking information from someone Articles Definite Article The definite article declines, or changes form, based on the gender of the noun it describes. The article can be masculine, feminine, neuter, or plural. It has cases to agree with the nouns it describes. This word translates the English 'the, that.' Indefinite Article This word translates the English 'a, an.' An adjective following this is in the weak form. There is no plural form for 'a, an' but if it means 'single, only' then it can have a plural form, as in 'the only women here' (þie anen Weife hier). If you intend to mean 'one' instead of 'a, an' then you write a double-a, as in 'aan, aanes' et al. This / These This word translates the English 'this, these.' An adjective following this is in the weak form. In a stressed form, meaning 'this one here directly in front of me' or 'this one we have been discussing just now' you write 'þies, þiesses' et al. The same, the very same Adjectives Strong Endings Adjectives add endings to tell their function in a sentence. When standing before a noun, they add strong endings. *Example: Stan (m), great Stan (big stone), ȝung Cild (young child), ȝunges Mæȝdens (of a young girl), aldem Mann (to an old person (male or female)), kalde Dage (cold days) Weak Endings Weak endings occur after an article having an ending is placed before a noun. This is before the words þe, þie, þat, mein, þein (et al), an, þis. *Example: þe Stan -> þe grœne Stan; þat Mæȝden -> þat ȝunge Mægden; þie Frowe -> mid þer wlitigen Frowe Comparison For all adjectives, comparison is made adding the suffixes ''-er'' and ''-est''. For example: *gemæn, gemæner, gemænst- (common, commoner, commonest) *dier, dierer, dierst- (dear, dearer, dearest) Some adjectives have irregular comparative forms, with umlaut. They are all single-syllable, and quite common: *ald, ælder, ældest (old) *brad, bræder, brædest (broad) *ferr, fierrer, fierrst (far) *great, grieter, grietst (great, big) *ȝung, ȝynger, ȝyngst (young) *heah, hieher, hiehst (high) *lang, længer, længst (long) *scort, scœrter, scœrtst (short) *strang, strænger, strængst (strongest) And a small number of adjectives have a completely different comparative/superlative form than the positive: *god, better, betst (good, better, best) *lytel, læsse, læst (little, less, least) *micel, mære, mæst ((great, much), more, most) *yfel, wiers, wierst (evil, worse, worst) Word-formation: Adjective endings To make new adjectives, you can use a set of adjective suffixes to nouns, forming new words: *bære - bearing, having; ex: lihtbære light-bearing, hornbære having horns *en - made of X; ex: wuden wooden, fellen made of skins, gylden golden *ern - in the direction of; ex: norðern, suðern, western, eastern *fæst - fast, fixed, firm; ex: arfæst firm in honor, virtuous, ærendfæst fixed in an errand *fald - X-fold, X-times; ex: anfald one time; single, twifald two times, double *full - full *iȝ - having the quality of X (note: the ȝ turns to g'' before adjective endings) *iht - a more emphatic version of ''iȝ, noting a higher degree of the trait; ex: geþyldiȝ, geþyldiht patient *isc - having a trait like X; cildisc - childish *lic - X-like *læs - X-less; arlæs honorless *el - forms adjectives from verbs; spreken -> sprekel talkative, etten -> ettel voracious *sum - in an X manner *ward - notes position or direction *wende - forms adjectives from nouns and other adjectives Verbs Verbs are those words describing an action or a state of being. Verbs are either strong or weak, like nouns and adjectives. Strong verbs change their vowel to indicate tense, while weak verbs add a dental suffix (-de, -te) to indicate tense. All verbs conjugate for person, singular/plural, and tense (past/present). Weak Verbs A weak verb has the following endings in the present tense, using maken to make, do as an example: So, the endings for weak and strong verbs are: *ic -e *þu -(e)st *he -(e)þ *wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hje -eþ Just add the endings to the stem (maken is the stem mak-'' and the infinitive ending ''-en) If the verb ends in a d/t, or some consonant cluster that makes it difficult to hear the ending, you keep the e'' in the 2nd and 3rd person. The plural ending is the same for all persons. Past tense of weak verbs Weak verbs form the past tense with either ''-de or ''-te''. If the word ends in a voiceless consonant, such as k, p, s/z, then it will add ''-te'', otherwise, ''-de''. If the verb ends in some kind of consonant cluster that makes the ending hard to hear, add e'' between the verb stem and the ending (gelanden -> gelandede). The following illustrate the past tense endings: Irregular Weak Verbs See: Irregular Weak Verbs There are some weak verbs which, like modern English and German, are irregular. They are equivalent to ''think, thought, thought. Strong Verbs Strong verbs are those verbs that change the vowel in the stem to indicate the tense, such as 'write, wrote, written' in modern English. It works essentially the same way in Niw Englisc, just that there are a few more strong verbs, and you can place them into 7 broad types to make it easier to predict their forms. Basically, a strong verb will look like this in the present: And the past: Like all verbs, the plural is the same ending for all three persons. The ic and he forms are the same, however, in the past tense. Type 1 -ei/a/i See: Strong Verbs type 1 The first type of strong verb has a ei vowel in the stem. Verbs like wreiten, streifen, sleiden, and sweifen are all type 1 verbs, and are declined the same way: Streifen - to strive And the past: And in the perfect tense with haben to have: *ic habe gestriffen, etc. Please note here that there is a slight change in the stem, doubling the consonant. This is merely to indicate the vowel preceding is short, but it does make some consonants voiceless that would otherwise be voiced (f'' sound instead of ''v sound, þ'' instead of ''ð, etc.) More type 1 verbs to practice: Special note on þ/ð - the letter thorn (þ) is the voiceless version of eth (ð), and as such, will alternate with it in certain forms of a verb or other word, depending on how it's used in a sentence. Take here the example of leiðen - to go, sail, travel: And the past: *Perfect: Type 2 ie-o-o Driegen - to endure And the past: *Subjunctive II: And in the perfect tense with haben to have: Special Note: verbs whose stems end in yogh ȝ''' pronounce it like English y''es in the present after e/i, but in the past tense, it sounds like 'ch' in the German 'ach' (IPA: x). This is a sound change based in historical linguistics, and needs to be memorized. When the vowel umlauts for the subjunctive, this sound further changes to the German 'ich' sound (IPA: ç). Example: flieȝen ''to flee Subjunctive II: Type 3 - e/i-a-o Example: helpen - to help And the past: Past subjunctive is a little irregular, taking the 'u' vowel: Perfect: Type 4 - e-a-o beran to bear And the past: Type 5 - e-a-e kweðen - to say And the past: Type 6 -a/o/a Type 7 -a/e/a Type 7 -irregular See: Type 7 Irregular Verbs There are a few type 7 verbs with irregular past tenses, a remnant of the old reduplicated verbs that all Germanic languages had at one point. *beaten, beft, gebeaten *dræden, drerd, gedræden *haaten, heht/hett, gehaten *laaken, lelk, gelaaken *læten, lert, gelæten *ræden, rerd/redd, geræden *spaaten, speft, gespaaten Irregular Verbs *See: Irregular Verbs These verbs are very irregular and have such a high frequency, that it's better just to memorize them. *don - to do *gan - to go *haben - to have *hycgen - to think *libben - to live *secgen - to say *wesen/been - to be; the only verb to have a distinct future tense form Modal Verbs / Preterite-Present Verbs See: Preterite-Present Verbs Modal verbs in Niw Englisc work similarly to German. They have full conjugations, and some can act alone without another verb to complete their meanings. *Modals: durren, kunnen, magen, moten, scullen, þurfen, willen *Preterite-Present: agen, benugen, dugen, gemunen, genugen, witten *As an example, the verb kunnen which alone means 'to be acquainted with, to know' and with an infinitive 'to be able to, can, know how to' Numbers *1-20: an, tweȝn, þrie, fier, feif, six, sefen, aht, neiȝn, tien, endlefen, twelf, þrietien, fiertien, feiftien, sixtien, sefentien, ahttien, neiȝntien, tweȝntiȝ *decades: tien, tweȝntiȝ, þrittiȝ, fiertiȝ, feiftiȝ, sixtiȝ, sefentiȝ, ahttiȝ, neiȝntiȝ, hund/hundred, endlefentiȝ, twelftiȝ *hundreds: hund/hundred, twahund, þriehund, fierhund, feifhund... *larger numbers: þusend, tienþusend, hundþusend, Million (10^6), Billion (10^9), Trillion (10^12), Quadrillion (10^15), Quintillion (10^18), et al. Writing numbers: when writing numbers, like in German, they are written together, with the digits preceding the decades. When writing hundreds, you write hundred when it's an even hundred (100, 200,..., 900), but otherwise, the shortened form is used. *31: anandþrittiȝ *568: feifhundahtandsixtiȝ *9327: neiȝnþusendþriehundsefenandtweȝntiȝ Prepositions See: Prepositions Genitive *andlang - alongside *hweilen - during *inteiden - during (a variant from in Teiden - in times) *innerseids - inside of *oferseids - on top of *onstede - in place of, instead of *underseids - underneath, on the bottom of *utenseids - outside of *wiþ - opposite of Dative *mid - with *onmang - among *oþ - until Accusative *þurh - through *wiþ - against (ic fehte wiþ hin I fight with/against him) Dative/Accusative *in *ofer *on Syntax Nouns All Nouns (substantives) are written with a capital letter, including adjectives acting as nouns. All nouns have gender to them; this is not an indication of natural gender, but it is merely an indicator of how to decline the noun in the sentence. Nouns can be masculine, feminine, or neuter; they can be singular or plural in number; they have five cases: nominative, genitive, dative, instrumental, and accusative. The instrumental case is rarely used, so it is not included in the declension charts. Instrumental Case Add an -e to the end of the noun and the adjective: mid þi Hammere - by means of the hammer; þi Hammere - with the hammer. You don't need a preposition to indicate this case, and it is very restricted in use to tools used to accomplish something. Accusative Case This is the case of the direct object of a sentence, and the object of some prepositions. In a sentence such as 'I see the boy' Ic see þen Knafen, the word Knafen is in the accusative case, as indicated by the article '''þen and the ending n''' on the noun. Verbs # Capital: A, Æ, B, C, D, Ð, E, F, G, Ȝ, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, Œ, P, Q, R, S, T, Þ, U, V, W, X, Y, Z # Lowercase: a, æ, b, c, d, ð, e, f, g, ȝ, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, œ, p, q, r, s, t, þ, u, v, w, x, y, z Articles *The definite article (þe, þie, þat) serves the same function as in German, and the English words "the" and "that". **The difference is in how the article is emphasized in speech. Þe Knafe findeþ þat Handy The boy finds the cell-phone versus Þe Knafe findeþ '''þat Handy The boy finds '''that' cellphone''. *Direct Articles can merge with prepositions in certain instances, as in modern German. **In þem => im **To þem => tom **To þer => tor Adjectives Prepositions *As in any other Germanic language, prepositions come before a noun, article, and adjective to indicate its relationship with the rest of the sentence: with the young boy, in the blue ocean, etc. þem jungen Knapen, in þen bluen Garsecg *The difference between Englisc and other Germanic languages is that in certain instances, the preposition follows the noun it describes. It only occurs in certain set instances, so it's very easy to tell when it would occur. **A preposition may follow the pronoun when doing so places the preposition next to a verb: ic him mid ga I go with him, þu her to ging you went to her ** Conjunctions Coordinating Coordinating conjunctions are the conjunctions that link two complete sentences together. In Englisc, they are: and, ak, oþþe (and, but, or). *Ic fand þat Handy and ic kallde hje I found the cellphone and I called them *Þu hrepst ak þu þiȝ ne ondrerdst? you screamed but weren't scared? *Wit kunneþ int Hus gan oþþe wit kunneþ umtreden we can go into the house or walk around Subordinating Simple Sentences *The word order in a simple sentence is Subject, Verb, Object *If the object is a single pronoun, dative or accusative, you can place it before the verb. Ic hin fand I found him, Wij hjem helpeþ we are helping them. *This is a very natural order when there is only a single pronoun object, otherwise, the objects all follow the verb: ic fand þen Knafen in þem Beam I found the boy in the tree Complex Sentences =Dictionary= *Nouns **Family Words *Adjektive *Verbs **Irregular Verbs **Preterite-Present Verbs =Example text= Fader user in Hefen, Gehaliȝd werðe þein Name, Þein Reic kume, Þein Wille gelimpe, on Erðe so eak on Hefen. Gif us todæȝ user dæȝlice Bread, And forgif usic useres Sculdes, So we forgifeþ usere Sculdiger And ne læd usic in Kostnung, Ak alies usic þes Yfelen. Forþem þein is þat Reic, and þie Maht, and þat Wuldor, æfre on æfre, Amen. *Folgeþ miȝ, and ic do ȝuic to Fisceren Menne - Jesus *Genesis 1 *Genesis 1:23: And þær was Æfen, and þær was Morgen-þe feifte Dæȝ *Genesis 1:23 (Run): ᚪᚾᛞ ᚦᚫᚱ ᚹᚪᛋ ᚫᚠᛖᚾ, ᚪᚾᛞ ᚦᚫᚱ ᚹᚪᛋ ᛗᚩᚱᚸᛖᚾ-ᚦᛖ ᚠᛖᛁᚠᛏᛖ ᛞᚫᚷ *If man seinen Computer mid Windows 7 aniwe, kyðe man snude seen, hu snell sein Computer been kann. Þie Swifte þisses Bedreifsystems warþ oft im Internet gewritten wesen. =Uses= Englisc is usable in many fields, including science, education, diplomacy, and every day life. If you'd like to use the language and expand it, please help out and put up some texts in the language. Category:Languages Category:Languages